Islamophobia

Islamophobia is another relevant concept to this study. Islamophobia is a complex bundle of discourses against Muslims (Iqbal, 2010), labelled as a form of cultural racism or Islamic (religious) racism (Turner, 1989) that is directed at Muslims by non-Muslims (Allen, 2010), where Islam and Muslims are considered a threat to the culture of a society (Iqbal, 2019). This form of anti-Muslim racism intensified after September 11, 2001. Since the horrible attacks on the Twin Towers in New York City, life has changed on many levels and for many people globally. The effects have been long lasting and continue to be a traumatic experience for many, especially Muslims, who were identified as terrorists in these attacks – and forever after. Islamophobia has scarring impacts on Muslim women. They face day-to-day discriminatory and traumatizing practices that are deeply rooted in Orientalism and Islamophobia. Many face racial microaggressions (Sue et al., 2007), which means “brief and commonplace daily verbal, behavioral, or environmental indignities, whether intentional or unintentional, that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative racial slights and insults toward people of color” (Sue et al., 2007, p. 1). On a regular basis, Muslim women deal with Islamophobia, leading them to be feared and reviled and considered both overpowered and in need of rescue because of their religion and gender. They are often told passively that they do not fit the Western womanhood ideal (Perry, 2014). Their identities are often questioned, based on the existing biases that view them as uneducated, oppressed, subjugated and domesticated (Abu-Ras & Suarez, 2009); as being in need of help, and as succumbing to and perpetuating patriarchy (Essers & Benschop, 2009); as having language barriers (Predelli, 2004); and for following what is perceived as an oppressive Islamic dress code (Haddad, 2007). Such stereotypes impact Muslim immigrant women’s identity as they can lead to microaggressions in their daily lives and in the workplace.